Waltharius1

Introduction: the Huns (1–12)

Tertia pars orbis, fratres, Europa vocatur, 1  Tertia pars orbis: as opposed to Africa and Asia, a division found as early as Herodotus (2.16). Fratres: suggests that the poem could have been read in a monastic context. Cf. adelphus in the prologue, line 22    Lucan, De Bello Civili 9.411–12: Tertia pars rerum Libye, si credere famae / Cuncta velis; at, si ventos caelumque sequaris, / Pars erit Europae. “Libya is the third continent of the world, if one is willing in all things to trust report; but, if you judge by the winds and the sky, you will find it to be part of Europe.” Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.372 Agitur pars tertia mundi… “The third part of the world is at stake…” Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 14.2.1: Divisus est autem trifarie: e quibus una pars Asia, altera Europa, tertia Africa nuncupatur. “[The earth] is divided into three parts, one of which is called Asia, the second Europe, the third Africa.”   Moribus ac linguis varias et nomine gentes  Aeneid 8.722–23: gentes, / quam variae linguis, habitu tam vestis et armis. “Peoples as diverse in fashion of dress and arms as in tongues.” Prudentius, Contra Orationem Symmachi 2.586–87: discordes linguis populos et dissona cultu / regna volens sociare Deus… “God, wishing to bring into partnership peoples of different speech and realms of discordant manners…”   Distinguens cultu, tum relligione sequestrans.  Cultu: As distinguished from religione, it probably can be translated as “way of life,” in the sense of the general style of societal customs. Sequestrans: “separating,” a meaning that seems to have developed from the concept of the deposit held by a sequester, the third-party arbitrator in a monetary conflict.   Inter quas gens Pannoniae residere probatur,  Pannonia: a Roman province in the north-west Balkans (around modern-day northern Croatia and western Hungary), and according to the poem the homeland of the “Huns” (Hunos, line 5). In historical reality, the Huns were a nomadic tribe that entered Europe from the Eurasian Steppe, beginning around 370 CE. The Romans relinquished control of Pannonia to the Huns in 435 (Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.vv. “Huns,” “Pannonia”; Kelly 2008, 83–84).   Quam tamen et Hunos plerumque vocare solemus. 5  Hunos: The Huns first swept into Roman consciousness when, invading from the east, they displaced the Goths, who—as detailed by Ammianus Marcellinus—ended up decimating the Roman army at the Battle of Adrianople, now Edirne in northwest Turkey, in 378 CE. In the following centuries   Hic populus fortis virtute vigebat et armis, Non circumpositas solum domitans regiones,  1 Macc. 1.1–2 Vulg.: Et factum est postquam percussit Alexander Philippi Macedo qui primus regnavit in Graecia egressus de terra Cetthim Darium regem Persarum et Medorum constituit proelia multa et omnium obtinuit munitiones et interfecit reges terrae et pertransiit usque ad fines terrae. “Now it came to pass, after that Alexander the son of Philip the Macedonian, who first reigned in Greece, coming out of the land of Cethim, had overthrown Darius king of the Persians and Medes: he fought many battles, and took the strong holds of all, and slew the kings of the earth: and he went through even to the ends of the earth.”   Litoris oceani sed pertransiverat oras,  Oceani: The shores of the ocean function as the ends of the world in a pre-modern sense of geography, where Oceanus is the great river that encircled the known world. The very same section of Isidore’s Etymologies that line 1 likely references explicitly describes Oceanus as encircling the globe. The Huns were a people of the inland steppes and plains. At the height of its power, the Hunnic Empire stretched from the Caspian and Black Seas to the North Sea and even the Adriatic, but never all the way to the Atlantic Ocean.    Aeneid 3.396: has autem terras Italique hanc litoris oram… “But these lands, and this nearest border of the Italian shore…” Virgil 2.44: ades et primi lege litoris oram. “Draw nigh, and skirt the near shoreline.” Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae 14.2: Undique enim Oceanus circumfluens eius in circulo ambit fines. … sed ideo istae duae partes factae sunt, quia inter utramque ab Oceano mare Magnum ingreditur, quod eas intersecat. “Indeed, the Ocean that flows around it on all sides encompasses its furthest reaches in a circle. … But the former pair [Europe and Africa] are divided into two regions, because from the Ocean the Mediterranean enters in between them and separates them.”   Foedera supplicibus donans sternensque rebelles.  The poet’s characterization of the Huns parallels a Virgilian characterization of the Romans. Especially here, the allusion to the Virgilian and Roman dictum to “spare the vanquished and crush the proud,” as it appears in Aeneid 6.852, is overt, despite its expression in a different language.    Aeneid 6.851–52: tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento / (hae tibi erunt artes), pacique imponere morem, / parcere subiectis et debellare superbos. “You, Roman, be sure to rule the world (be these your arts), to crown peace with justice, to spare the vanquished and to crush the proud.”   Ultra millenos fertur dominarier annos. 10  Fertur: the subject is populus. Dominarier: archaic form for the passive infinitive (here of a deponent), frequent in poetry of all periods. Ultra millenos … annos: The millennium reign has been a common enough trope for powerful long-lasting empires (cf. the celebration of the millennium of Rome’s rule in 248 CE or the thousand year reign of Christ in Rev. 20). The hyperbole of this time-frame for the Hunnic empire explicit here and implied later (antiquos … triumphos, line 13), which only really lasted around a century in Europe, likens the Huns to the Romans in the manner and duration of their rule. This aggrandized characterization averts potential humiliation from the Frankish kingdoms’ obeisance, and glorifies Walther’s eventual triumph, as the enemy they face is not merely a nomadic army, but an empire on par with Rome.   Attila rex quodam tulit illud tempore regnum,  Attila: Ruler of the Huns, first with his brother Bleda, from ca. 440 to 445, then alone until 453 CE (Oxford Classical Dictionary, s.v. “Attila”). Tulit = gessit   Impiger antiquos sibimet renovare triumphos.  Renovare: infinitive following impiger (“eager”); as in Hor. Carm. 4.14.22.   « previous   Prologue 1–12: Introduction: the Huns 13–418: The Huns 13–33: The Franks under Gibich surrender to Attila, giving Hagen as a hostage 34–74: The Burgundians under Hereric surrender to Attila, giving Hildegund as a hostage 75–92: The Aquitainians under Alphere surrender to Attila, giving Walther as a hostage 93–115: Experience of the hostages at Attila’s court 116–122: Death of Gibich, flight of Hagen 123–141: Attila’s queen Ospirin advises her husband to ensure Walther’s loyalty by arranging a marriage 142–169: Walther rejects Attila’s offer of a bride 170–214: Walther leads the army of the Huns to victory in battle 215–418: The Escape 215–255: Walther returns from battle and encounters Hildegund 256–286: Walther reveals to Hildegund his plans for escaping with Attila’s treasure 287–323: Walther hosts a luxurious banquet for Attila’s court; eventually all his intoxicated guests fall asleep 324–357: Flight of Walther and Hildegund from Attila’s court 358–379: The following day, the escape of Walther and Hildegund is discovered by Ospirin 380–418: Attila is infuriated and vows revenge on Walther, but can find no one willing to dare to pursue him, even for a large reward 419–1061: The Single Combats 419–639: Diplomacy 419–435: Flight of Walther and Hildegund to the area of Worms 436–488: Gunther, King of the Franks, learns of Walther’s presence on his territory and, despite Hagen’s warnings, decides to pursue him for his treasure 489–512: Walther makes his camp in a mountainous area and goes to sleep 513–531: Gunther and his companions approach Walther’s camp; Hagen unsuccessfully tries to dissuade the king from attacking it 532–571: Hildegund sees the Franks approaching and wakes Walther, who calms her fears and prepares for battle; he recognizes Hagen from a distance 572–580: Hagen persuades Gunther to try diplomacy before using force 581–616: Camalo is sent as a messenger to Walther, who offers to make Gunther a gift in return for allowing his passage 617–639: Hagen counsels Gunther to accept the offer, but Gunther rejects this advice, calling him a coward. Insulted, Hagen goes off to a nearby hill 640–1061: Combat 640–685: 1st single combat. Camalo is sent back to Walther, who slays him 686–719: 2nd single combat. Walther slays Kimo/Scaramund, Camalo’s nephew 720–724: Gunther encourages his men 725–753: 3rd single combat. Walther slays Werinhard, a descendant of the Trojan Pandarus 754–780: 4th single combat. Walther slays the Saxon Ekivrid, after an exchange of insults 781–845: 5th single combat. Walther slays Hadawart, after an exchange of insults 846–877. Hagen sees his nephew Patavrid going off to fight Walther and laments the evil wreaked on mankind by greed 878–913. 6th single combat. After trying to dissuade him from fighting, Walther slays Patavrid 914–940: 7th single combat. Walther slays Gerwitus 941–961: Gunther again encourages his men, giving Walther some time to rest 962–981. 8th single combat. Walther is shorn of his hair by Randolf, whom he then slays 982–1061. Walther is attacked by Eleuthir/Helmnot, assisted by Trogus, Tanastus, and Gunther; he slays all but Gunther 1062–1452: The Final Combat 1062–1088: Gunther tries to persuade Hagen to help him to defeat Waltharius; remembering his wounded honor, Hagen refuses 1089–1129: Hagen changes his mind and agrees to help Gunther, but advises that they must lie low wait until Walther comes down from the mountains into open ground 1130–1187: Walther decides to spend the night in the mountains. He rematches the severed heads with the bodies of his victims, prays for their souls, then sleeps 1188–1207: The following day, Walther and Hildegund set out from the mountains, taking the horses and arms of the defeated warriors 1208–1236: Hildegund perceives Gunther and Hagen approaching to attack; the king addresses Walther 1237–1279: Walther ignores Gunther and pleads with Hagen to remember the bond of their childhood friendship; Hagen counters that Walther has already broken their faith by slaying Patavrid 1280–1345: The fight begins and continues for seven hours; Gunther foolishly tries to retrieve a thrown spear from the ground near Walther and is only saved from death by Hagen’s brave intervention 1346–1375: Walther challenges Hagen; he severs Gunther’s leg, but Hagen again saves the king’s life 1376–1395: Hagen cuts off Walther’s right hand; Walther gouges out one of Hagen’s eyes and, cutting open his cheek, knocks out four teeth 1396–1442: Having wounded each other, the warriors end the battle, drink together, and engage in a friendly exchange of humorous taunt 1443–1452: The warriors return to their respective homes; Walther marries Hildegund and eventually becomes king of the Aquitainians 1453–1456: Epilogue  next » English Scansion